References

References

Better Representation

Better Outcomes

01

Louie P, Wilkes R. Representations of race and skin tone in medical textbook imagery. Soc Sci Med. 2018;202:38-42. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.023

Lack of Representation

Medical Illustration

01

Kaundinya T, Kundu RV. Diversity of skin images in medical texts: recommendations for student advocacy in medical education. J Med Educ Curric Dev. 2021;8. doi:10.1177/23821205211025855

02

Salzberg A. A medical illustration reveals the importance of diversity. aiaTranslations. Published December 20, 2021. Accessed March 17, 2023. https://www.aiatranslations.com/post/a-medical-illustration-reveals-the-importance-of-diversity

Dermatology

Atopic dermatitis

01

Mayo Clinic. Atopic dermatitis (eczema). Published August 5, 2022. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/atopic-dermatitis-eczema/symptoms-causes/syc-20353273

02

Kaufman B, Alexis A. Eczema in skin of color: what you need to know. National Eczema Association. Published September 2, 2022. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://nationaleczema.org/blog/eczema-in-skin-of-color/

Dengue Fever

01

Mayo Clinic. Dengue fever. Published October 5, 2022. Accessed October 27, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dengue-fever/symptoms-causes/syc-20353078

02

Delaware Health and Social Services. Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). Accessed October 27, 2022. https://dhss.delaware.gov/dph/files/denguefvrfaq.pdf

03

World Health Organization. Dengue and severe dengue. Published March 17, 2023. Accessed June 1, 2023. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dengue-and-severe-dengue

Hidradenitis suppurativa

01

Mayo Clinic. Hidradenitis suppurativa. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hidradenitis-suppurativa/symptoms-causes/syc-20352306

02

Werner C. Hidradenitis suppurativa and Black skin: what to know. Healthline. Published March 30, 2021. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://www.healthline.com/health/hidradenitis-suppurativa/hidradenitis-suppurativa-and-black-skin

03

Gavidia M. Worse outcomes seen among Black patients with hidradenitis suppurativa. AJMC. Published October 5, 2022. Accessed November 1, 2022. https://www.ajmc.com/view/worse-outcomes-seen-among-black-patients-with-hidradenitis-suppurativa

Lupus

01

Mayo Clinic. Lupus. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/lupus/symptoms-causes/syc-20365789

02

Bleifeld CJ, Inglis AE. The hand in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1974;56(6):1207-1215. doi:10.2106/00004623-197456060-00012

03

Rodriguez T. Addressing racial disparities in systemic lupus erythematosus treatment. Rheumatology Advisor. Published March 28, 2018. Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.rheumatologyadvisor.com/home/topics/systemic-lupus-erythematosus/addressing-racial-disparities-in-systemic-lupus-erythematosus-treatment/

04

Cleveland Clinic. Lupus (systemic lupus erythematosus). Accessed May 31, 2023. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4875-lupus

PSORIASIS

01

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Psoriasis. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/psoriasis/index.htm

02

Hoskin MN. What Black patients need to know about the effects of psoriasis. Everyday Health. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://www.everydayhealth.com/psoriasis/what-black-patients-need-to-know-about-the-effects-of-psoriasis/

EYE DISEASE

Arcus Senilus

01

WebMD. What is arcus senilis? Accessed November 2, 2022. https://www.webmd.com/eye-health/what-is-arcus-senilis

02

Munjal A, Kaufman EJ. Arcus senilis. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2022. Updated August 1, 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554370/

Cataracts

01

National Eye Institute. Cataracts. Updated January 13, 2023. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/cataracts

02

Johnson A. Eye disease prevalence in African American communities. All About Vision. Published February 2, 2022. Accessed May 19, 2023. https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/eye-disease-prevalence-in-african-american-communities/

Glaucoma

01

National Eye Institute. Glaucoma. Updated April 21, 2022. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/glaucoma

02

Mayo Clinic. Glaucoma. Published September 30, 2022. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/glaucoma/symptoms-causes/syc-20372839

03

Katz J, Friedman DS. African Americans and glaucoma. Glaucoma Research Foundation. Updated March 21, 2023. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://glaucoma.org/african-americans-and-glaucoma/

04

Allison K, Patel DG, Greene L. Racial and ethnic disparities in primary open-angle glaucoma clinical trials: A systematic review and meta-analysis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(5):e218348. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.8348

General Health

Afib, Stroke

01

Mayo Clinic. Atrial fibrillation. Published October 19, 2021. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/atrial-fibrillation/symptoms-causes/syc-20350624

02

Mayo Clinic. Stroke. Published January 20, 2022. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/stroke/symptoms-causes/syc-20350113

03

Johns Hopkins Medicine. What is afib? Accessed May 31, 2023. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/atrial-fibrillation

04

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. What is a stroke? Accessed May June 1, 2023. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/stroke

Peripheral Artery Disease

01

Cleveland Clinic. Peripheral artery disease. Accessed October 27, 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17357-peripheral-artery-disease-pad

02

Hackler EL 3rd, Hamburg NM, White Solaru KT. Racial and ethnic disparities in peripheral artery disease. Circ Res. 2021;128(12):1913-1926. doi:10.1161/ CIRCRESAHA.121.318243

Weathering

01

Russell T. Let’s not forget, weathering is also killing Black people. SELF. Published July 1, 2020. Accessed November 1, 2022.

02

Sandoiu A. ‘Weathering’: what are the health effects of stress and discrimination? Medical News Today. Published February 26, 2021. Accessed May 19, 2023. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/weathering-what-are-the-health-effects-of-stress-and-discrimination

Hematology

Anemia

01

Mayo Clinic. Anemia. Published May 11, 2023. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20351360

02

Sinharoy SS, Fanzo J. Ethical and human rights considerations related to access to anemia diagnosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2019;1450(1):239-248. doi:10.1111/nyas.14124

Sickle Cell Disease

01

Mayo Clinic. Sickle cell anemia. Published March 9, 2022. Accessed November 16, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sickle-cell-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355876

02

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. What is sickle cell disease? Accessed November 12, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/facts.html

03

Lee L, Smith-Whitley K, Banks S, Puckrein G. Reducing health care disparities in sickle cell disease: a review. Public Health Rep. 2019;134(6):599-607. doi:10.1177/0033354919881438

Maternal Health

Breastfeeding

01

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Your guide to breastfeeding For African American women. Published January 2011. Accessed May 19, 2023. https://www.in.gov/icw/files/african-american-breastfeeding-guide.pdf

02

New York State Department of Health. Why is breastfeeding important for your baby? Updated December 2015. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.health.ny.gov/prevention/nutrition/wic/breastfeeding/importance.htm

03

Echols A. The challenges of breastfeeding as a Black person. American Civil Liberties Union. Published August 15, 2019. Accessed November 1, 2022. https://www.aclu.org/news/womens-rights/challenges-breastfeeding-black-person

04

Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. About breastfeeding and breast milk. Accessed May 31, 2023. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/breastfeeding/conditioninfo

Obstetric Fistula

01

Mayo Clinic. Rectovaginal fistula. Published January 13, 2023. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rectovaginal-fistula/symptoms-causes/syc-20377108

02

World Health Organization. Obstetric fistula. Published February 19, 2018. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/10-facts-on-obstetric-fistula

Preeclampsia

01

Mayo Clinic. Preeclampsia. Published April 15, 2022. Accessed October 24, 2022.

02

Population Reference Bureau. Black women over three times more likely to die in pregnancy, postpartum than White women, new research finds. Published December 6, 2021. Accessed October 24, 2022. https://www.prb.org/resources/black-women-over-three-times-more-likely-to-die-in-pregnancy-postpartum-than-white-women-new-research-finds/

Oncology

Inflammatory Breast Cancer

01

Mayo Clinic. Breast cancer. Published December 14, 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/breast-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352470

02

Roland J. Skin dimpling: is it breast cancer? Healthline. Updated June 9, 2020. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.healthline.com/health/breast-cancer-dimpling

03

American Cancer Society. More Black women die from breast cancer than any other cancer. Published February 14. 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.cancer.org/research/acs-research-news/facts-and-figures-african-american-black-people-2022-2024.html

04

Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Shields AE. Understanding and effectively addressing breast cancer in African American women: unpacking the social context. Cancer. 2016;122(14):2138-2149. doi:10.1002/cncr.29935

05

Mukherjee B, Merajver S. Women with inflammatory breast cancer are living longer, but the gap between White and Black patients persists. Institute for Healthcare Policy & Innovation. Published October 12, 2020. Accessed June 5, 2023. https://ihpi.umich.edu/news/women-inflammatory-breast-cancer-are-living-longer-gap-between-white-and-black-patients

Breast Cancer

01

Mayo Clinic. Breast cancer. Published December 14, 2022. Accessed May 19, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/breast-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352470

02

American Cancer Society. More Black women die from breast cancer than any other cancer. Published February 14. 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.cancer.org/research/acs-research-news/facts-and-figures-african-american-black-people-2022-2024.html

03

Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Shields AE. Understanding and effectively addressing breast cancer in African American women: unpacking the social context. Cancer. 2016;122(14):2138-2149. doi:10.1002/cncr.29935

04

Mount Sinai. Nipple discharge. Accessed June 5, 2023. https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/nipple-discharge

LUNG CANCER

01

Mayo Clinic. Lung cancer. Published March 22, 2022. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/lung-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20374620

02

American Lung Association. Racial and ethnic disparities. Updated October 28, 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.lung.org/research/state-of-lung-cancer/racial-and-ethnic-disparities

PANCREATIC CANCER

01

Mayo Clinic. Pancreatic cancer. Published November 30, 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pancreatic-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20355421

02

Johns Hopkins University. Pancreatic cancer and African Americans. Accessed November 22, 2022. https://pathology.jhu.edu/pancreas/familial/about/african-americans

03

Post E. Let’s talk about: pancreatic cancer’s impact on Black Americans. Pancreatic Cancer Action Network. Published February 4, 2022. Accessed June 5, 2023. https://pancan.org/news/lets-talk-about-pancreatic-cancers-impact-on-black-americans/

PROSTATE CANCER

01

Mayo Clinic. Prostate cancer. Published December 14, 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/prostate-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20353087

02

American Cancer Society. What is prostate cancer? Updated August 1, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2022. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/prostate-cancer/about/what-is-prostate-cancer.html

03

National Cancer Institute. African American men more likely to die from low-grade prostate cancer. Published January 28, 2019. Accessed May 31, 2023. https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2019/prostate-cancer-death-disparities-black-men

ORTHOPEDICS

FEMORAL FRACTURE

01

Lowe J. Femur shaft fractures (broken thighbone). American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons. Updated May 2018. Accessed October 27, 2022. https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases--conditions/femur-shaft-fractures-broken-thighbone/

02

McFarling UL. The whitest specialty: as medicine strives to close its diversity gaps, one field remains a stubborn outlier. STAT. Published December 13, 2021. Accessed October 28, 2022. https://www.statnews.com/2021/12/13/whitest-specialty-as-medicine-strives-to-close-diversity-gaps-orthopedic-surgery-remains-stubborn-outlier/

KNEE REPLACEMENT

01

Mayo Clinic. Knee replacement. Published December 21, 2022. Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/knee-replacement/about/pac-20385276

02

American Association of Hip and Knee Surgeons. Racial and ethnic disparities in hip and knee arthroplasty. Accessed October 26, 2022. https://hipknee.aahks.org/racial-and-ethnic-disparities-in-hip-and-knee-arthroplasty/

OTHER

INEQUITY IN CARE

01

Bains C. Lack of racial diversity in medical textbooks could mean inequity in care, study suggests. CBC News. Published March 5, 2018. Accessed May 19, 2023. https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/racial-diversity-medical-textbooks-1.4562352

02

Gomez LE, Bernet P. Diversity improves performance and outcomes. J Natl Med Assoc. 2019;111(4):383-392. doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2019.01.006